Indrani Chakravarti

Institute of Integrated Himalayan Studies (UGC Centre of Excellence) Himachal Pradesh University India, Shimla

The Concert of Shiva in Himalayan Region with Special Reference to Himachal Pradesh

The Temple Architecture.

The most elementary form of hill architecture is represented by the old temples which are scattered everywhere all along the mountain slopes and in the valleys. These are of indigenous styles and peculiar to the hills. Most of the architectures are undated, apart from those built within the living memory or are being built presently. The architecture of the Himalayan region was originally made of wood, as extensive forests of deodar had been in existence here since time immemorial. Deodar wood is very durable and is insect-proof. The vast number of hill temples, built all over the middle belt of Himachal Pradesh, are of wood, generally deodar. These shrines, built like most of the other buildings of that material, are immense in form, but at the same time are more picturesque and richly carved. For these temples deodar wood has been used traditionally to impart stability to the tall structures. The walls of these temples are raised on the horizontal wooden framework called cheols. In the well-built structure, the wood is very carefully arranged, the beams being perhaps a 30 cms or so in depth, extending over the whole length of the wall-a beam on the outside on the inside, the space in between is filled up with stones. The walls at right angle have their beams laid on the two just mentioned, on those again rest the next set of beams of the first mentioned course, and thus, they go on alternately. lt may be seen that this mass of wood work is capable of holding together itself to make a solid wall in between.

Khasha Style. The style of traditional temples may be defined as the "Khasha style". All buildings of the "Khasha style", whether a country house or a palace, temple or a temple-treasury, known as bhandor, share the same techniques of construction, and all use the same primary simple building materials -stone and wood. Individual buildings within the same style are differentiated according to their function and cost.

A temple is built in thes centre of the village or on the upper slopes. The common plan of the temple is square, but occasionally, it is rectangular also. Construction materials are the familiar stone and wood. The more pompous temples are built by communal participation and are maintained by the temple-funds established for the purpose.

Captain A.F.P. Harcourt, who was Assistant Commissioner in Kullu from April 1869 to March 1871, was the first person to take note of the architectural grandeur of the temples in Kullu valley. He classified the temples of Kullu valley in four architectural categories. Later, Penelope Chetwode extensively explored Kullu valley and adjoining areas in nineteen sixties and seventies for its architectural wealth. She has more or less stuck to the architectural classification of Harcourt because "his classification of the four different architectural types of Kullu temples can hardly be improved upon" but she has further identified temple style of Kullu and Shimla regions in Sutlej valley as the "Sutlej Valley style". These distinct types of hill temples may perhaps mark different eras of religious belief, and also the infusion of new races with the older inhabitants.

Coming to the architectural categories of the wooden temples of Himachal Pradesh, it may be said that the four identified by Harcourt are familiar and the "Sutlej Valley style" is found in the Outer Saraj region of Kullu and in Shimla region in Satluj valley. Some examples of this style have also been found east of Tons river in Jaunsar-Bawar of Chakrata Division. Perhaps Penelope Chetwode was unaware of these temples and she named this as "Sutlej Valley style". Thus, the architectural styles found in Himachal Pradesh have been identified as:

1. Pent-roof or Chalet style.

2. Tower style.

3. Pyramidal style.

4. Pagoda style.

5. Sutlej Valley style.

Pent-Roof or Chalet Style. The square or rectangular wood and stone temples with pent roofs are the most ancient in Himachal Pradesh. They are found all over the hills. Their upper portions, in most cases, have been repaired but the ground work indicates their antiquity and might have been laid in a very remote period. In size these structures differ considerably, but while they vary in the construction of their verandahs and the quality of the carved work, with which the same are laden, they all have one common feature, and that is the finely-cut, large and excellent stones that constitute their base. Among the most remarkable of these temples are Lakshana Devi temple at Brahmaur, Shakti Devi at Chhatrari in Chamba, Mirkula Devi at Mirkula (Udaipur) in Lahaul, Bijli Mahadev on the right bank of Parvati stream, Sandhya-Gayatri temple at Jagatsukh, Devi Chungarsa temple at Chung, Ambika temple at Nirmand, Shringi Rishi temple at Manglour, all in Kullu. In the upper Satluj valley and Pabar valley, there are numerous temples of this style.

Similar to the style as that of Lakshana Devi temple of Brahmaur, there are several village temples in Chamba, mostly dedicated to the goddess or Naga deities. These are built in later period and some are of the recent times. These temples are erected on much the same plan, and are usually situated in a clump of deodar trees near a village. Sometimes, a temple may be erected in the interior of a forest or in some mountain ravine, standing quite alone.

The usual pattern is a square resting on a raised platform of stone. The building itself may be entirely of wood, or of the wood and stone, so common in the hills. It generally consists of a central cella with an open verandah around it and a small door in front. The whole is covered with a pent roof of wood which either slopes on two sides from a central ridge, or on four sides from the top. The roof is supported on cross beams resting on wooden or wood and stone pillars, one at each corner of the platform, with intermediate supports, if necessary. Sometimes the verandah is entirely closed in, with only a doorway opposite the door of the cella. The cella remains the same from age to age, and is not renewed unless it becomes ruinous, but the roof is frequently renewed. This, however, is not done now as often as was the custom in former times, and in many cases repairs are carried out only when absolutely necessary. The wood-work of the verandah is covered in parts with carvings of a grotesque character, while hanging around are the horns of animals, which have been offered in sacrifice, with bells suspended over the doorway, and sometimes a pole in front, called dhuj. These temples have probably remained much the same in shape and structure since the earliest times.

The roofs are gabled. The pinnacle of the slate roof is mounted with a single beam on which metal pots of copper or brass plated with gold are nailed. At places these pots are of iron. These pots are locally known as (annda) kalash. The principal kalash is installed from funds of the temple and the others are offered by the devotees from time to time. The eaves of temples are covered with carved planks and in these are fitted long fringes by nails. These fringes give pleasant sound when wind blows. The door-jams, facades, niches, called tiri, are decorated with wood-carving depicting lions, elephants, snakes, peacocks, sun-flower and foliage and many themes from the Hindu pantheons. All the motifs are the imagination of the temple priest and wood-carver. Kinnaur temples excel in woodcarvings, such as Guga Rani palace-cum-temple at Sapani. Such temples have single room and the image or mask of the deity is placed on a wooden altar installed against the front wall of the temple. Only the priest can approach the image and the worshippers pray from a distance.

Tower Style. Another type of pent-roof style is seen in the tower temples or it may be said that when the chalet style structure is raised to three or more storeys height so that the verandah all around extends beyond the walls to form a cantilevered structure, as if a chalet placed on high pedestal, it looks like a tower. Locally such buildings are called "kat" or "kali" temple.

The main difference between these two styles is that the tower-iike temples are built on a square plinth and all the four walls are of the same size. Some of the temples in this style are very tall. The walls are raised to the desired height on which sturdy beams are laid to form support for the flooring planks. The beams are also projected beyond the walls so that the cantilevered verandah or corridor is formed around. The walls are further raised to the roof height. When more than one floor is proposed, the process of extending cantilevers is repeated.

In the medieval period the highland barons of Himachal Pradesh used to live in tower-like high buildings. In all cases they could be used for defensive purposes, for the entrance often being 10 mts or more high from the ground, these could only be reached by a square recess left on the floors and connected by a notched tree-trunks or a step-ladder. There are many old temples, still in good condition, found in Kullu and Shimla hills. Penelope Chetwode has mentioned about the Chaini Tower in a paper on Temples of Western Himalaya, in 1973 that "the tall tower (about 45 metres) contains a shrine of Shringi Rishi in one of the upper storeys and little away stands a smaller tower which acts as the temple store. All these buildings are in the type 2 style, but it is interesting to note that in the lower storeys of both the towers and the rectangular temples the horizontal timbers are laid at wide intervals and presumably serve to distribute the pressure on the stone walls below them. In the upper storeys on the other hand, the usual interlocking framework is the rule. The great tower obviously served for defensive as well as for sacred purposes, the only access to the upper storeys being by notched tree trunks which could be pulled up when all the villagers were safely inside".

Amongst many other the notable tower style temples are: Rairmool Devi temple at Kadharan in Balsan area of Theog tehsil, Baneshwar Devta temple at Pujarli near Kotkhai, Kawar Jakh Devta of Dodra-Kawar, Doom Devta temple in upper Shimla, Shari Devi temple in village Shari, Mananeshwar temple in village Manan, and Piri Devi temple in Purana Jubbal.

In tower style there are some twin temples or say two parallel buildings of the same dimension and style. The excellent examples of such temples are: Bhimakali temple of Sarahan in Rampur Bushahr area, Bijat Devta at village Sarahan in Chopal and again Bijat Devta (also called Gunao) at Joma in Chopal. All the three are in Shimla district. The principal image of the deity is enshrined in one structure and the other is used for storing the valuable material of the deity.

Pyramidal Style. Taking style of roofs as the basis of distinction, the pyramid like roof temples are also found in Himachal Pradesh especially in Jubbal valley. Such types are built on square plinths. All the four lower eaves of the temple roof are of equal length and then the roof goes on narrowing towards the centre forming a pyramid-like roof in the centre, with a chhatri (canopy) or kalash on the top. There are three temples of this style in Jubbal town: one is dedicated to Mahasu Devta, other is Thakurdwara and the third is Shivedawala. The latter was built by Raja Padam Chand in 1885 A.D. Similarly, there are a few examples of such type of temples in Kinnaur. These are Mathi Devi temple at Chitkul and a small temple at Rukti village at the confluence of Baspa and Rukti streams in Baspa valley. The latter temple has a wooden chhatri. The other examples of pyramid-like roof temples are Dundi Devi temple at village Dabhas in Chopal of Shimla district, Himgiri wooden temple and Jalpa Devit emple at Mekhla in Chamba.

Pagoda Style. The Pagoda style architecture is the most interesting of all, and its origin forms a leading question in Indian art history. Some writers feel that the style shows Chinese influence. But the suggestions of Chinese models is misleading, for ordinarily the Pagoda style travelled dia through Nepal and Tibet to China and Japan, as has been shown, amongst others, by Percy Brown in his book Indian Architecture. Nepalese architects were invited to China. There they built the famous white Pagoda in Peking in the middle of the 7th century, as is proved by an inscription on it in Sanskrit and Chinese. Some authorities maintain that it came to Kullu and other adjoining regions from Nepal, where it was very common in the valley of Kathmandu; others say that it was introduced direct into the hills from the Indian plains during the reign of Harsha (606-647 A.D.).

The Pagoda style is one for which histories of Indian art use various regional terms, though in this Himalayan region, it simplifies the matters if one sticks to the familiar term "pagoda", by which is meant a building with a succession of superimposed pent-roofs, each one a little smaller than the one below it. The inside wall of the bottom storey is usually of timber-bonded stone, the remainder of the building being of wood. Sometimes, however, the eaves are covered with vast stone tiles in place of shingles. Such temples are usually built on square plan, with roofing provided in successive narrowing tiers rising upward to form canopy at the top.

In Himachal Pradesh the pagoda style is a smaller version of the much more sophisticated and highly finished Nepalese court architecture. There are many Pagoda style temples in Mandi, Kullu, Shimla hills and Kinnaur regions of Himachal Pradesh. Some of them can lay claim to considerable age. Here it is not possible to do justice to every temple. Therefore the most interesting ones are mentioned. A few of the well known examples of these temples are the Parashar Rishi temple and Adi Purkha temple at Tihri-Uttarsal, Mahadev temple at village Tawan (Karsog) in Mandi district. Hidimba Devi temple at Dungri in Manali, Tripura Sundari Devi temple at Nagar, Triyugi Narain temple at Dayar, Adi Brahma temple at Khokhan, Parashar temple near Kammand, Manu Rishi temple at Shainshar, lshwar (Ishar) Mahadev temple at village Palach Dhamaoli; Ghatotkachh temple at village Khun (Banjar), Markandaya Rishi and Tripura Bala Sundari Devi temple at village Bala (in Inner Saraj), Dakshineshwar Mahadev temple at Nirmand, all in Kullu district; Maheshwar temples at villages Chagaon and Sungra, Narain Devta temple at village Garsu in Kinnaur.

Of the three architectural styles discussed above, pagoda style has extensively been adopted for temples, while vernacular chalet and tower style have been applied for temples as well as for secular buildings. This distinction may suggest that the chalet and tower styles rose here from the soil as the organic part of the autochthonous socio-religious life. Thus, these styles could find universal vogue both for religious and secular purpose. On the other hand, the pagoda style found way into the inner Himalayan valleys much later in the history in the wake of the efflorescence of classical cults from the mainland. Consequently its use also remained religious.

Sutlej Valley Style. The fifth is a fusion of pent-roof and pagoda roof. Penelope Chetwode, who had great love for Kullu and extensively explored the Kullu and adjoining area for architectural wealth, authored various papers on her findings. She may be credited for documenting many new temples of Kullu and the adjoining Shimla district. Chetwode has more or less stuck to the architectural classification of Harcourt and has further "provisionally" identified temple style of Kullu and Shimla region in the Satluj valley as the 'Sutlej Valley' style, which she has described as the fascinating cross breed of pent-roof and pagoda style corresponding to two and three of Harcourt's classifications.

The fifth type, introduced by Chetwode to define the wooden temple type found in the Satluj valley, and followed after her by many scholars, is the so-called "Sutlej Valley style". In fact, Chetwode herself was not sure about her definition of the temples, which she found in the Outer Saraj sub-division of Kullu district in the Satluj valley, and on the first impression defined them provisionally as the "Sutluj Valley style". The architectonic of the type of temples found in the Outer Saraj area of Kullu cannot be confined to that sub-division only, but it extends far beyond to the other side of the Satluj in the lower Kinnaur and Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh and further eastward in the Tons valley of Uttarkashi district and Jaunsar Bawar paraganas of Dehradun district of Uttaranchal (formerly Uttar Pradesh). On the western side, the temples of this architectural type may be found in Karsog tehsil of Mandi district. Therefore, the identity "Sutlej Valley style" given to this temple by Chetwode needs to be reconsidered. Technically speaking, a temple of this type has not been founded on the ground, but it has been erected on the framework, locally called cheol, of massive deodar beams placed on the elevated masonry platform.

Some of Shiva Temples of Himachal Pradesh.

Chandrasekhar Temple, Saho. The Siva temple (VogelJ. PI. opcit. p. 152) at Saho, according to a stone inscription, discovered in the village and now preserved in the Chamba Museum, was built by Satyaki, son of Bagota, who married Som Prabha of the House of the lords of Kiskindhika. The main deity under worship at the temple is a Sivalinga commonly known as Chandrasekhar. The cell in which the linga is placed is undoubtedly ancient. The lingum is placed on a large stand square at the top, which is encased in copper sheeting. The doorway is the most ornamental part of the temple. The door lintel is supported by two pillars with shafts and capitals of pot and foliage type. The bracket capitals are supported by the supporting figurines. Both sides of the entrance are profusely carved. The lower half of each doorjamb is decorated with a standing figure of Siva in his angry form to the right and the benevolent form to the left. The right hand figure has three faces and six arms. With two of his hands, he holds the end of an elephant headed snake swung over his head. The remaining two right hands hold trident and an object, the left hands holds the heads of two demons. The god wears a long necklace of human skull and a snake as a sacred thread. He stands on a corpse and is attended by two chowrie-bearers. The left hand image represents Siva-four armed. In his right side hands he holds a flower and a rosary, and in the left side hands a trident and a water pot. He is also flanked by chowrie-bearers. In the courtyard opposite the temple stands a large stone image of Siva′s bull, Nandi. Siva Nataraja (OhriV.C, Op. cit, p. 39) has been carved at the entrance of the garbha-griha isanctum-sanctorum) of the temple.

Siva Temple, Harsar. The village of Harsar is located 15 km away from Brahmaur on :he road leading to Lahaul by Kukti pass. The village has a small shrine, which contains (VogelJ. PI. op. cit, p. 251) brass image of two armed Siva. The image is remarkable as much as it consists of a bust resting on a base. The right hand holds a rosary and the left hand a fruit. The inscription consists of two lines and in all probability belongs to the Mohamaden period. The English rendering of the inscription is produced below:

"In the year of bliss 58, the 14th of Jyeth, have the Bhagasyani Nathu's sons, Gangu and Kisanu built the Mahadeva at Arsar".

Manimahesa Temple, Brahmaur. This is the largest of the Sikhara style temples built in stone at Brahmaur and is dedicated to Manimahesa, another name of Siva. The main deity of veneration is a Sivalinga, placed inside the temple and surrounded by a number of other small images, including those of Ganesa and Durga with a child in her lap.

The walls of the temple are squared blocks of stone that are highly decorated. The bull Nandi, the mount of Siva, stands in front of the temple dedicated to Manimahesa. The executing of the brass image of Nandi is enacted with much-exaggerated features.

Trilochnana Mahadeva Temple, Gum. Gum is situated on the ancient way from Chamba to Brahmaur. During the days of Meruvarman, the place was the seat of the Chieftain, Asadha Deva, who owed allegiance to the ruler of Brahmaur. The Kothi of the Chieftain is still preserved at Gum. At some distance from it, there is a small Devi shrine surrounded by a large number of lingas. According to local tradition the number of such lingas was 101. On the same route there is a stand in the form of a square stone, about a metre in length and breadth. Apparently, once a ling a was enshrined there. On the front of this slab., an inscription is cut in bold and well-defined letters. From the inscription it is evident that the ancient name of the place was Sivapura (700 A.D.). The large number of stone lingas may account for the same.

Chandragupta Temple, Chamba. The temple of Chandragupta stands as one of the six temples of the Lakshmi-Narayana group of temples at Chamba. Like other temples in the group, this is also a Sikhara temple with an ardha-mandapa in the front. The main deity worshipped at the temple is Siva and Parvati with Nandi. Here Siva is shown seated on the bull with the goddess Paravati to the left of Siva. The image is in a dilapidated condition. There are two deities seated on the top right and left corner of the sculpture, one of which could be identified as that of Ganesa. There is, another standing figure of Ganesa holding a rod (Pasha) in his right hand and a plate of sweets in the left.

The temple also preserves the images of Bhairavas, one of which is shown seated on a dog holding a khatvanga with a skull in one of his two right hands. The other right hand is in varada pose. The attributes of the other two hands are not quite clear. The other image of Bhairava depicts him seated on a human corpse holding a sword and a shield. The entrance is flanked by the two river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, holding water vessels in their hands.

Ranganatha Temple, Bilaspur. The temple of Ranganatha in old Bilaspur town was one of the most impressive Sikhara temples of the town, which is now in ruins and remains submerged, at least for one half of the year, in the waters of Govind Sagar lake. The temple is completely in a shattered condition.

The temple of Ranganatha appears to have been rebuilt a few centuries ago, over the remains of an earlier edifice, using the sculptures of the ninth century. Some carvings resembling those of Pratihara period appear on various panels decorating the plinth level of the temple. At the time of reconstruction, the temple was dedicated to Siva and a linga was under worship there. A life size image of Nandi was placed in front of the temple, which was removed to the new township.

Gauri-Shankar Temple, Chamba. This is one of the group of six temples in the Lakshmi-Narayana temple complex at Chamba, wherein three temples are dedicated to Shiva and three to Vishnu. The temple as usual is a Sikhara shrine built in stone, and is dedicated to Siva whose bronze image in the company of Paruati is under worship in the temple. The standing Siva here is four armed, placing one of his left arms over the right shoulder of Parvati. The other left hand holds an object. In his two right hands Siva holds a rosary and a trident. A snake is entwined over his body. Parvati on the other hand stands to the left of the god holding a vase in her left hand and the right hand is held in varada-mudra. The entrance of the temple has two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna.

Tryambakesvara Temple, Chamba. The temple is in one of the Lakshmi-Narayana group of six temples of Chamba and is also of the sikhara type built in stone. The presiding deity of the temple is Chaturmukha linga placed in a yoni shaped pedestal. At the entrance gate finely carved sculptures of Ganga and Yamuna, each holding a vase, are placed on either side of the gate. In one of the niches, die image of Surya is enshrined, in which the god is shown seated holding two lotus flowers in his hands.

Siva Temple, Ghumsal. The hamlet of Ghumsal is situated in Sutkar the main valley of Trehta. It contains a small Siva temple built in stone, the height of which is 6.6" and the width of four feet. The roof of the temple was ruined in the earthquake of 4th April, 1905. The lintel over the entrance gate contains an inscription measuring 11" in two lines. The letters are quite distinct and the language is corrupt Sanskrit. The temple is enshrined with a lingo, the main deity for worship. The temple is located over the right banks of the Ravi. The English translation of the inscription is give below:

"The Shrine (Sthana) of the illustrious Pajiani Kukadeva, made by the stone mason Panju and Gangu".

Siva temple - Kharamukh, Chamba. From Chamba on way to Khara-mukh near the check post, there is a Siva temple in stone, in Sikhara style. The main deity of worship is a Siva-linga. Around the temple, there are small niches, wherein images of different deities are placed. In the compound of the same temple, a number of sculptures are placed. One of them depicts goddess Mahishasuramardini having eight arms.

Narmadesvara Temple, Tirasujanpur. Murals have been profusely painted on the hills, arches and niches of Narmadesvara temple at Tirasujanpur built in 1802, by Rani Prasanni Devi, wife of Maharaja Sansar Chand (1773-1823). It is situated on the banks of the river Beas, built probably in mixed Rajput - Mughal style of Rajasthan. The square baradari form of the shrine is modelled on a small outer platform. It has no Sikhara, but a flat roof. It is enclosed by a square wall with only one doorway in the south-east.

Since the temple is dedicated to Siva, his legends are painted on the walls with considerable skill. The series of paintings depict (i) Siva as Kalyanasundermurti i.e. Siva′s marriage with Parvati (ii) Siva and Parvati seated in a surrounding of hills (iii) Ravana's attempt to shake mount Kailasa - which Siva is keeping stable by firmly pressing down his leg and with one hand holding terrified Parvati to his bosom.

Baijanatha Temple, Baijnath. The Mahadeva temple at Baijnath had its ancient name as Vaidyanatha - Lord of physicians. The original name of die place was Kirgrama, which is recorded in the two extensive Sarda inscriptions incised on stone slab which in elegant Sanskrit verses give die history of die foundation of the temple by two local merchant brotiiers - Manyuka and Ahuka. It faces west and stands in the middle of an enclosure of an irregular shape about 120 feet in length and 60-75 feet in widtii. The situation of the Baijanatha temple on a comparatively flat plateau not far removed, but at a fair distance from Dhauladhar, shows an instinctive appreciation of the site, where a small man-made mountain with its sikhara could converse arrogantly witii the sky. The temple compound contains a number of shrines scattered here and tiiere.

In front of the temple are placed two images of Nandi - the mount of Siva. One of those in a standing position and bigger in size, is of later date, while the one seated in a mandapa supported by four pillars, belongs to an earlier period.

The garbhagriha area is eight square feet in the interior and eighteen square feet on the exterior. The main deity is a Sivalinga which is enshrined therein. The top of the sikhara is adorned with amalaka over which is placed a vase and is crowned by a trident – the emblem of Siva.

Gauri Sankara Temple, Dasal. The Gauri. Sankara temple at Dasal is of Sikhara style built in stone. The entire outer surface of the temple is beautifully carved with floral designs. There is a mandapa at the temple entrance, which has two stone pillars decorated at the base as well as the top with the pot-foliage designs carved over them. At the top of each pillar, Siva is shown seated, holding a trident in his hand. The centre of die lintel has Ganesa seated. The entrance of die temple door is flanked by Ganga and Yamuna on either side, holding a vase. While the presiding deity at die temple is a Sivalinga, the sculptures in the temple include four armed Vishnu seated over Garuda, Skanda - Karttikeya seated on a peacock, and Seshasayi Vishnu. One of die sculptures depicts die goddess Mahishaisuramardini killing die buffalo demon (Mahishashura) widi her uident. Siva's bull, Nandi is placed outside die temple on a stone pedestal.

Bijat Mahadev Temple, Sarahan. The ancient temple of Bijat Mahadev is situated in a village Sarahan, on the foothills of Churdhar hill. There is a very dense forest and is known as Dandi ka Jangal. The temple of Bijat Mahadev is constructed in Pahari style of architecture and is quite important from archeological point of view. There are two giant sanctums. In one, the idols of Bijat Deva and his family members are placed. The temple has circular courtyard with a number of two-storied buildings that were built in time to time. Bijat-deva is also known as Brajeshwar Mahadev.

There is a famous folklore about this temple. When Agyasur attacked Srigul temple at Churdhar, then the deva became angry. He killed the asura. During this time, the idol of Bijat deva fell in Sarahan. The people of Sarahan constructed a temple and placed this idol there. There are a number of temples dedicated to Bijat Deva in Sarahan, Sirmour and Jorna. In Vedic period, Sarahan was also known as the City of Indra.

Bijat Maharaj visits his entire area once in nine years. It is said that the stick of Maharaj visits all the deva lokas with other gods. And each god worships this gold stick before bidding farewell. There are 14 such sticks in the temple till date. It is also said that when this stick goes to Shiv Lok, even Lord Shiva welcomes it. Local deities worship this stick in their temples for days together. This ritual is known as Chhuakara Puja in local dialect.

Bijat Deva is the reigning deity of Chopal region and people of the area have deep faith in him. They always visit the temple to pray for the welfare of the members of their families. Every year, a fair known as Bishu fair, is organized in which thousands of devotees come to pray.

The Temples Visited in remote areas. Apart from the above temples, a number of Shiva temples are found in remote areas of Himachal Pradesh, which are no less important in the daily life of these inhabitants of the region. For example: Shamsar (Ani, Kullu), Deothi-Majhgaun (Sirmour), Saror (Shimla), Balag (Shimla), Shirgul-Chordhar (Sirmour) etc. The PI has visited these places and collected important data for her subject. She planned to visit a few more places of importance, but due to time constraint it was not possible.

The most important point is that the villagers of Deothi-Majhgaun with adjoining four more villages worship God Rudra instead of Shiva. After a thorough investigation, I have come to the conclusion that this may be the only area in Himachal region where Rudra is worshiped as main deity instead of Shiva. Sources say that Rudra is not worshiped in any other place of Himachal Pradesh. It is pertinent to mention that some claims Bijli Mahadev at Kullu and Kamru Nag at Mandi are supposed to be Rudra or one of the eleven Rudras; but the claim is not supported by any evidence. The Bijli Mahadev is widely known as Mahadev (or Shiva) and not Rudra. Likewise Nagas are considered to be supportive to Narayana, as Vishnu (Narayana) lies on Shesha Naga. In His incarnation as Sri Krishna, he defeted Basuki Naga and saved the Kalindi (Yamuna) river under the nagas and made it free from poison. Contrary to this, Rudra or Shiva has fondly accepted nagas as His ornament; hence He is known as Nagabhushana.

Rudra Temple at Deothi-Majhgaon, District Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh. There is an interesting story about how Rudra emerged in nearby village and the deity was accepted to be worshipped in this remote area. The village head and the main priest narrated a story of ancient time. There was a village near Deothi-Majhgaon, named Barog. A Brahmin named Kama used to live in this village with his family. One morning, when the wife of the Brahmin was churning curd, she heard some sound coming out of the curd pot. She felt some solid thing inside the pot. But when the woman put her hand inside the pot to find the object, she failed to find anything. As she started churning the curd again, she heard the continuous sound. She tried to ascertain the reason for the sound emanating from the pot, but she could not know the cause. Frightened, she called her husband and narrated to him the strange occurance. Bemused and uncertain, he put his hand in the pot when something solid struck it. It was a small metal idol that he took out.

It was now the husband′s turn now, to be frightened. He placed the idol to one side and with folded hands he asked reverentially, "Who are you? Are you some deity or evil spirit?" At this, there came a voice, "I am Ludar (Rudra)." The Brahmin said," If you are Ludar (Rudra), then pray show me some miracle so that I may believe that you are a devta."

Immediately, a band of ants was seen by the idol. They formed a file and started moving. The Brahmin followed the ants holding the idol in his hands. These ants circled five villages and at the end they stopped in a place called "Deothi". At this spot, the ants formed a circle. This was sufficient indication that the diety wanted to be installed there and so it was.

The five villages, which were circled by the ants, are known as "the serfs (Praja) of Rudra even today. The names are: Deothi, Majhagaon, Lawana, Kunthal and Garu. There are small temples of Rudra in these villages with the main temple in Deothi.

For laying the foundation of the temple for worshiping the idol of Rudra, Pundits (priests) from Balag, nearby village were invited. They were responsible for all arrangements of the temple. Even today pundits from Balag village are invited on various festivals and other such occasions. Except some specified festivals, which is narrated later, no other festival of Rudra can be celebrated in these villages.

One more place is famous for self-incarnation of Rudra as recorded from the priest and other important persons. In a nearby village named Garh, there lived one Rana (Rajput) named Thakur Man Singh. He earned respect for himself and his family. He also used to look after the village temple.

Once, an untouchable was carrying "Kachouru" (some eatables) prepared by his wife. On the way, one Rajput saw the Kachouru and asked the man to give him for test. The rajput was pleased to test it asked the man," Who prepared such nice Kachouru?" The untouchable answered that the kachourus were prepared by the Rani, the queen. The raj put thought that the Rani who could prepare so nice kachouru, must be very beautiful. Then he planned to kill the Rana to get the Rani.

He said to the untouchable, "You break the nearby dam and inform Rana that water has stopped flowing and it would start flowing only when he himself touches it. Rana, trusting that untouchable, went with him. When he bowed down to touch that small drain, he was beheaded. The head of Rana rolled down the drain, but the torso was carried out by his obedient horse to the temple at Deothi. Since then he was known as "Thakral" and his idol was kept and worshiped with Rudra. Even today the Thakral could be seen by people in white cloths. But whosoever sees him becomes mad or dies.

The Deity.

Rudra possesses one member of the family of Brahmin who found the idol of Rudra. This member is called "Deva".

The successor of the Brahmin was divided into three different families. The first is called "Madhaik", the second is "Malaik" and the third is "Khandaik". Out of these three, the deity possesses only one member of one family. In case there is some death or birth in a family, the other family member worships the Rudra.

Only one person can become Deva (the person whom the diety possesses on some special event). The deity never possesses two persons. When one deva dies, some other person becomes deva. Representatives from each village come to Deothi to become deva and keep fasting in the temple premise. During fasting period, they pray to the deity. Sometime, the fast continues for 8 to 20 days. Not necessarily only the fasting person is commanced to be a Deva. Even a person not fasting during this period may receive Rudra's calling.

The possessed person goes to a place called "Baman" to take bath. After that he goes to a number of places and finally he enters the temple premises. The person comes in trance at that time, does not talk but cries loudly.

Now a ritual "Madhada" is performed. In this ritual, a sheep is swirled around the head of Deva. Then the sheep is taken to a far off place and is sacrificed. Precaution is taken that not a drop of blood should fall in the temple premises. After this sacrifice, deva can talk.

After that, deva has to undergo a test to ensure whether he is the real deva or not. For this, the deva has to extinguish blazing fire with his naked hands. If during this, any part of the body of the deva or his cloths catch fire, he is rejected as deva. Acceptance depends only on his passing this test.

Rules for Deva. The person, who becomes deva, has to follow many strict rules. These are as follows:

1. He will not wear leather shoes.

2. He will not bind any animal. He can only unbind the animals.

3. He will not plough.

4. He will not clean dung.

5. He will not eat food prepared by a lady in monthly periods.

6. Deva will not visit a house or eat in a house to a certain period of time where someone has died or taken birth.

7. If someone dies in the area, deva will not eat on that day.

Deva Festivals.

1. The smallest deity festival is "Akkhan". In Akkhan, a small idol of the deity is taken in a procession. When the desire of someone is fulfilled, then that person invites the deity in his home. Deva carries a small idol of the deity rapped in a cloth. The idol moves around carried by the deva since morning till evening. In this assignment of the work, food is taken by the deva only once. The ritual performed during this festival is called "Pachi". Nearly 100 to 150 devotees participate in this festival.

2. A bigger festival of the deity is called "Chershi". The deity moves in a palanquin. A number of musical instruments like Dhol, Nagara, Karnal, Ransingha etc. are played during this festival.

When the deity moves, "Surajnan" tala is played. This tala has 14 beats and is played on the left side of Dhol. Two or three dholes are played together. The tala of 8 beat named "Shavari" is also played. The deity is worshipped at night. On this occasion, "Pachi" is played.

The deity returns next day. On this occasion, some sacrifices are made. One sacrifice is for Kali (the Female incarnation of Durga) and the other is for the servant or ghost (Gan) of the deity.

3. This big festival is called "Jagra". The priest decides the time and day auspicious for the festival. First of all pure melted butter (Ghee) is placed in a pot known as "Charu". On this occasion, an idol is taken along. Deity goes on the previous night of Jagar. This is called "Dadhaunu". All the devotees who follow the deity, carry a burning torch (Dab) in their hands. This is also called "Neri rat Baishe" that is; "O Deity! We have illuminated this dark night for you." During this period, Dhol, Nagara, other musical instruments are played and a particular tal called "Darhoni" is played on Dhol which has 4 beats.

4. Another big event is called "Shant". Here the original idol of the main deity performs a journey to Kedarnath. This "Shant" festival is held after 20 years, but under certain circumstances (If rain water falls on the idol of deity) this may be performed earlier.

From Kedarnath, water is brought in a vessal (Udak). This water is kept in the temple. If this water dries up or if rainwater falls on the vessal containing water, then the journey to Kedarnath has to be performed before time. According to the rule only 11 persons can perform this journey, which proves the concept of Eleven Rudras with their eleven followers. It is pertinent to mention that the deity, on His journey, halts at 11 places to take bath. In this Shant festival, the main idol (that is Rudra) performs His journey to Kedarnath one time and His incarnation designated Thakral Devata performs His journey to Kedarnath next time.

The entire journey from Deothi-Majhgaon to Kedarnath is covered on foot. This journey takes nearly 45 days. The auspicious hour for the commencement of the journey is decided by the deity. Deity possesses the deva and he tells the exact days of commencement of onward and return journey. The villagers collect money to meet the expenses of the journey.

During the pilgrimage, the deity is bathed at 11 places; viz:

1. Tir Ganga

2. Ashtdhara

3. Jamuna

4. Bhimgoda

5. Brahmkund

6. Rishikesh

7. Dev Prayag

8. Rudra Prayag

9. Gupt Kashi

10. Gauri Kund

11. Kedarnath

There are three temple premises at Deothi-Majhgaon. First is the original place where the ants drew a circle when the idol of Rudra appeared during the churning of curd. There was a templetherethat was burnt due to some enmity between the people from other village. When the temple was destroyed, all the idols were taken out safely by the villagers and were placed in a tower about 15 to 20 metres from the original site. In the ancient time, there was a fort along the area. Towers were erected to defend this fort. It was in one of these towers that the idols were placed. Today the idols are still in this tower. It is called "Tharet". The deity is worshipped daily. This tower is constructed of stone and is nearly four storied high. The top of the temple roof has been constructed of wood. No one except deva can enter this tower. Entire treasure belonging to the deity is also kept here. As for the original site, there remains only a stone platform with a flag; the only indication of its being a sacred spot.

The third temple premises is nearly 25 to 30 metres from the Tharet. This temple is situated at a height. It is a small but beautiful temple. This temple was constructed in 14^th or 15^th century A.D. The temple is made of wood and a number of figures of gods and goddesses are engraved on the walls of the temple. Among the figures, there are water nymphs, Sun, Moon etc.

In many figures, musical instruments are also shown. Some of the musical instruments are Dhol, Nagara, Veena etc. None was able to give any detailed information regarding the musical instruments. The Veena type instrument, which is more in number, can be equated somehow with Rabab of medieval period considering the structure of the instrument and the sitting posture of the player. In the middle of these figures, a brief inscription is placed which could not be deciphered by any expert till date. This temple is opened for public only when Ekadash festival is celebrated. During this festival, the idol of Rudra is brought from its temple to this place for one week. This temple is also known as "Maud".

Rules of Rudra Devta. The Rudra is the presiding God of Deothi and other villages, who wields immense power over the psyche of the villagers. They abide by the rules of Rudra coming to them through the deva. The villagers do not dare to question the verdict of the God. Any problem of the villagers or any dispute is placed before Rudra and whatever the dicision of the diety be, acceptable to all. As the final decision is uttered, it is considered the last word and thereafter nobody raises the issue, which is then closed. It is sacrilageous to re-raise the problem further and people desist from it.

For example, if there is some problems between two persons about land or the boundaries of the land that could not be decided, then the problem is placed before the deity with a prayer that whatever the Lord decides, will be acceptable to all. The deva, after being possessed by Rudra, the Deity, goes to that place and decides the matter. A stone is placed at the site which is called "Oda".

The Rudra also has the power to banish a person for some immoral or anti-social action whether done unknowingly or with full knowledge under emotional compulsions or lustful designs. Before conferring banishment, which in days of yore, was considered a severe punishment. The representatives of the region were summoned in whose presence the deity took the decision whether to banish the person or to give him some other punishment. This is according to the enormity of his offence. In case of banishment, the person was barred from entering the village. Banishment is called "Dashoul" in local language. However, if the person paid a fine, his sentence could be repealed and he could then enter the village. The amount of the fine is deposited in the temple- treasury. Since ancient times, a part of crop is donated to the temple. This is added to the treasure of the deity. If some one needs some grain, then he can borrow from the deity's store. When he returns the grain, he has to pay some interest as well. Likewise, if some one needs money, he can borrow from the temple and while returning, he has to pay a fixed interest.

Traditions and Beliefs.

1. When the deity remains out of the temple, the women do not take bath.

2. During this period, entire village has to live piously. In case some mistake is committed, he has to accept the mistake publically and a kalash (cupola) has to be placed on the top of the temple as fine.

3. People willingly donate money or grain, but there is a provision of fine as well. If some one commits some mistake like entering the temple in a state of intoxication etc., he is fined. In ancient times, for small mistakes, the fine was one rupee, which was called "Danda". For a bit bigger mistake, six silver rupees had to be paid as fine, which was known as "kanchan". In case of still bigger mistake, twelve rupees or one gold coin had to be paid. And for biggest mistake, deity′s Jagar had to be organized. Even today, if some one enters the temple intoxicated, he has to pay a fine of rupees 100. The fine is decided by the temple committee.

4. There was a tradition of sacrifice but now this tradition is seldom put into practice. The sacrifice is given only when the deity Himself orders through the Deva. On being possessed, the deva narrates the important events going to happen in different times.

5. Entry of women inside the temple was completely banned, but now there is some relaxation.

6. Untouchables are not allowed to enter the temple.

7. In worship, Panch Gavya (Religiously traditional and pious mixture consisting of five things like milk, honey, sugar, cow's urine and curd) is used.

8. The worship is done in a local manner. Vadic tradition of worship is also followed but local dialect is also used for chanting of mantras (incantations from th scriptures).

9. Worship to Rudra is performed twice daily.

Every year, a fair is celebrated. This is the biggest festival of the year. This is called Ekadash. This fair starts on fifteenth day (dark fortnight) of November and finishes on the next full moon.

On this occasion, the deity comes out of Tharot and goes to Maud. In front of Maud, "Gayna" (burning of fire) is performed. Worship of the deity goes on throughout the night. Jagar is performed. Five Jagars are called from five villages. No invitation is sent but people gather of their own. In the night, the deva is possessed by the deity. At this time, a Tal named "Rathwada" is played on Dhol. This Tal has 12 beats and can be termed as martial beat because it was played during the battles.

The folk dance "Nati" is performed, by 30 to 40 persons. The deity also dances with these devotees after it possesses the Deva. At night, a folk drama "Karyala" is performed.

Along with the idol of Rudra, other idols are also housed in the temple. They are:

1. Dakral

2. Devi Bhagvati Jonsan

3. Devi Kanauti

4. Shirgul Maharaj

5. Doom devta

6. Small idols of Rudra which are taken out on different occasions, e.g. for entering a new house, Grahasanu idol, in Akkhan, Akkhanu etc.

Mangleshwar Mahadev, Balag, Shimla. After traveling a distance of 65 kilometers Northeast direction from Shimla by road, one reaches to the village Balag where there is an ancient temple of Mangleshwar Mahadev erected by Pandavs.This temple is famous for its architecture throughout Himachal Pradesh. The temple has been built using gigantic stones. The architectural beauty of these stones is worth seeing. The roof of the temple is slanting and is covered with wide slate stone. On the outer walls of the temple, a number of images are carved. These walls are made of wood.

Inside the sanctorum, a Shiva Linga is placed. About this temple and the Shiva Linga, there is an ancient local lore. The lore says, this temple and the Shiva Linga was erected by Pandavas. The inscriptions on the stones have been deciphered by the Art and Culture Department. The experts are also of the view that this ancient temple was erected by Pandavs. In ancient times, this temple was on the bank of Giri Ganga. But at present Giri Ganga river has changed its course by 200 meters downwards. Apart from Shiva Linga, a number of idols of other deities have also been placed in the temple. These idols were recovered when the temple area was being dug for extension and repairs. According to one folklore, there were five temples of Pandavs, but due to some unknown reason, temples of Yudhishtra, Arjuna and Sahdev were destroyed and only temples of Bhima and Nakul are still in their original shape. Inside the sanctum of Bhima temple, a Shiva Linga is placed. During the excavation of the temple area, idols of Lord Vishnu and Ma Durga were recovered. Mother Durga has been shown as Mahishsur Mardani (Destroyer of the demon King Mahishashura). Another idol of Ma Durga shows her in a calm mood. All these idols are placed carefully in small portions of the temple. A hall has been erected facing the sanctum. The tower of this hall (Mandap) has been set up with different animal figures.

Adjoining the temple is a seven-storied house, which is a fine example of Pahari architecture. This is known as Parshuram temple. A folklore tells us that Balag was the capital of the great powerful king Bali, who was the master of this area. Bali had defeated a number of devtas and imprisoned them. To free the Devtas, Lord Vishnu came-as Vaman incarnation and through diplomacy got the promise from Bali to donate two and half steps of earth. Lord Vaman expanded his body and covered the entire earth with one step and entire heaven with the other. After that the Lord asked Bali where to put His half step. On this, Bali requested the Lord to put that half step on his head to fulfill his promise. In this manner Bali came to his end and all the Devtas were freed.

It is to be mentioned here that people of Karala also claim that the great demon king Bali was there first king, who established his kingdom in the region. They also claim that the whole of Keral Desha was invented by the king Bali. Bali was a great devotee of Shiva. He was overpowered by Vishnu (the Protector God) to destroy the sacrifice offered by the king, who wanted to become most powerful king of the universe. Lord Vishnu exploited the king's nature of sacrifice, who, vowed not to refuse any one who came to him for some offerings. Rest of the story is same as narrated above. The people of Kerala still celebrate Onam to show their respect to the king Bali.

The above event proves that from far north of Himalaya to the last boundary of the country King Bali was popular not only as a king but also for his devotion and benevolence.

Coming back to Balag, it is still believed that the Shiva Linga here is the same, which was worshipped by Bali and it is at the same place where Lord Vaman got the king to fulfil his vow. This Shiva Linga is worshiped today with complete devotion.

This temple owns one chariot of the deity, which comes out of the temple to fulfil some auspicious work in the area. There is a traditional rule that the main idol is brought out of the temple once in a year for the performance of main worship and rituals. On this occasion, the local residents organize a three-day Ekadash festival. On this auspicious occasion, the main idol of Shiva is kept in the Shiva temple under strict vigilance and security of the devotees. After three days the idol is taken back to the original place. During the festival, the local residents sing devotional songs based on the folklore. Ma Raileshwari and Ma Sheetala are also worshipped as aide-de-camp, because these two supernatural powers are always present in the temple of Shiva. According to one folklore, there is one idol in the temple that demands sacrifice of one goat at every step. But no one invites this power during any auspicious occasion. Sacrifice is a taboo in the temple. Only milk and bel leaves are offered to lord Shiva.

The worship at the ancient Shiva temple is performed by local Brahmins in the morning as well as in the evening. Vedic mantras are sung. The guardians of the Shiva temple are called Panda Brahmins. Their descendents are addressed as 'Gailaik' or 'Suveik'. A deva represents the power of this temple who is considered a God incarnate. In case of any problem or possession by ghosts, the deva comes to their rescue. People have absolute faith in him. Local residents have no hand in the selection of deva. At the time of selection, local residents assemble in the courtyard of the temple and pray that Lord to possess some Brahmin and appear before him. In this manner it may take days or months together for the Lord to listen to their pray and possess a Brahmin of Balag village. The voice of deva Gur) is considered the voice of Lord Shiva. On being possessed by the power, residents of entire area accept him as the representative of the divine power. This is followed even today.

Devotees from all corners of India and abroad visit this temple. On special occasions like Shiv Ratri, Eekadash, Diwali etc., the local residents arrange for devotional chanting which goes on throughout the night.

Shamshi Mahadev, Shamsar, Ani, Kullu. The Shiva temple of Shamshi Mahadev is situated nearly three kilometers from Ani, District Kullu on the Ani-Kullu Road. The temple is built on a hill by the side of the road and one has to climb more than 100 steps to reach the temple.

It is said that this temple was built nearly 2008 years ago as is depicted in a wooden plank carving. The writing on this wooden plank is in a language, which has not yet been read by any expert. According to the villagers, the temple was built in 52 Vikrami Sam vat.

There is an interesting story regarding this famous temple. It is said that long long ago, there was a cowherd whose job was to take cows of Kamand village for grazing. He used to perform his duty conscientiously but the owner of the cows found that one of his cows did not yield any milk. He held the cowherd responsible for milking his cow for his own interest. The cowherd denied this allegation and decided to find out what happened to the milk of that particular cow. He tied a thread to the tail of the cow. When cows were grazing, the cowherd fell asleep and in dream he found lord Shiva telling him to wake up and go after that cow. He woke up and ran after the cow, which was going toward a particular place by the side of a small river. There she poured out her milk at the roots of a Shammi tree.

Seeing this, the cowherd went back to the village and told the elders. The elders decided to find out what lay beneath that Shammi tree. They dug up the tree and found one Shiva Linga there. This Linga was then properly established in the temple, which is now known as Shamshi Mahadev temple.

It is also said that the water of a Sarovar (big pond or small lake), which now a days is quite far away from the village, was having one opening near that Shammi tree. Hence with these two words "Shammi and Sarovar" the word Shamshi was coined.

The temple is constructed of wood and the entire structure is placed on huge logs of Deodar. The temple is small and has a small courtyard. A new temple is being constructed on the premises. Shiva Linga is placed inside a very small antechamber. A big Havan Kund is also there just outside the main temple and is used only on big occasions for Yajan (Sacrifice).

Shirgul Mahadev, Churdhar, Sirmour. This temple is quite old and is situated on the top of Churdhar hill in the district of Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh. The temple is situated at a height of nearly 12000 feet from the sea level and the climate there is always cold. Winter is severe and more than 30 feet of snowfall is recorded every year.

The original temple is a very small hut in which hardly 10 persons can stand or sit. A Shiva Linga is placed inside a small adobe. Regular puja is performed in a traditional manner in local dialect. Devotees visit this temple from April to October. After October, it snows and it is not possible to visit the area.

Shirgul is the name of a famous royal person "Shrikul". Shrikul was a brave and handsome person having divine qualities. Once on a visit to Delhi, he and his followers were arrested by the then emperor of Delhi. When message of his arrest reached Sirmour, a small band of his young and brave companions, called "veer" reached Delhi to set him free. There they solicited the help of a sweepress who pointed out the cell where Shrikul was placed. The braves freed Shrikul and took that sweepress with them lest she he pinished for helping them. Shrikul accepted her as his sister. At present, a very beautiful temple of this woman (now known as Bhangayani Ma) has been constructed at Haripurdhar in the District of Sirmour. This temple faces the temple of Shirgul at Churdhar.

Shirgul is the local deity of a large part of Sirmour district and a pilgrimage to Churdhar is considered necessary for every devotee.One can reach the temple from Nohradhar (15 Kms), or from Sarahan (12 Kms) Travelling to temple is quite tough, as one has to climb steep hills.

Shiva Cave Temple, Saror, Tattapani, Shimla. This is an ancient cave temple, which was discovered only a few decades ago. There is an interesting story about the discovery of this cave temple. A bridge was being constructed on a small river near this cave. Lord Shiva appeared in the dream of engineer incharge and told him that the place where they were constructing the bridge had His cave. The engineer, on waking up, went to that place and found this cave. A road was constructed for the devotees and the temple is becoming quite famous. This temple is nearly half a kilometer from the main road and is easily approachable.

The cave is a small one and there are more than 1000 lingas, which were formed due to the action of dripping water. More lingas are being formed continuously. This shows that the temple is very old, perhaps thousands of years old as the action of water shows clearly.

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Literature

1. Indrani Chakravarti. THE CONCEPT OF SHIVA IN HIMALAYAN REGION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO HIMACHAL PRADESH. INSTITUTE OF INTEGRATED HIMALAYAN STUDIES. Institute of Integrated Himalayan Studies (UGC Centre of Excellence) Himachal Pradesh University Shimla, India. 2007. Р. 22-56.

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